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When the terrain transitions from dirt to hard-packed snow (firn) or clear ice, the friction provided by standard mountaineering soles is no longer sufficient. At this point, the use of crampons becomes not just necessary, but vital for the climber’s safety and upward progress.

Below is a detailed look at how they are categorized, how they function, and what to look for when choosing and using them.

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1. Basic Distinction: Articulated vs. Rigid

The first major decision concerns the construction of the frame, which dictates their primary use:

• Articulated Crampons: These consist of two main parts connected by a movable center bar. This design allows the crampon to follow the natural flex of the foot while walking.
  • Ideal for: Winter hiking, glacier travel, and classic mountaineering on moderate slopes.
  • Advantage: Comfort during long approaches on snowy slopes.
• Rigid Frame Crampons: The frame is a single, stiff unit that does not flex.
  • Ideal for: Ice climbing (frozen waterfalls), very steep terrain, and mixed (rock and ice) climbing.
  • Advantage: They provide maximum stability when the climber is standing solely on the front points.

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2. Point Anatomy (Point Geometry)

The number, position, and shape of the points determine how the crampon performs on different types of ice.

Front Points

• Horizontal: These act like small shovels. They provide excellent “float” and purchase in hard-packed snow (firn). However, they struggle to penetrate hard, “glassy” ice.
• Vertical: Designed similarly to the pick of an ice axe. They penetrate hard ice easily with minimal effort. In soft snow, however, they tend to “slice” through and do not hold as effectively.

Differences by Point Count (10 vs. 12 Points)

Choosing between 10 and 12 points depends largely on the steepness of the terrain:

10-Point Articulated Crampons

1. 10-Point Crampons (Walking/Classic):
   • Configuration: They feature two front points but lack the second pair of points that angle forward.
   • Advantages: Significantly lighter and ideal for smaller boot sizes.
   • Limitations: On slopes steeper than 35°–40°, front-pointing becomes exhausting because there is no secondary support under the ball of the foot.
2. 12-Point Crampons (Technical/Mountaineering):
   • The Key Difference: An additional pair of points (the 3rd and 4th in sequence) is positioned to point forward, directly behind the main front points.
   • Advantages: They provide a stable platform on steep slopes and better grip during descents when walking flat-footed.
   • Limitations: Slightly heavier and require more careful footwork to avoid snagging your gaiters or pants.

Comparison Table

Feature	10-Point	12-Point
Primary Use	Snow hiking, glaciers	Mountaineering, steep couloirs
Weight	Low (Ideal for light packing)	Medium
Steep Slope Performance	Limited (>35°)	Excellent
Ideal for	Beginners / Ski Touring	Frequent climbers / Technical routes

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12-Point Rigid Frame Crampons

3. Binding Systems: The Key to Stability

A crampon is only as good as its connection to the boot. Losing a crampon in an exposed area is an extremely dangerous situation.

• Strap-on Bindings: The classic, universal method using synthetic straps (e.g., nylon).
  • Compatibility: They fit almost any boot, even those without specialized welts.
  • Caution: Do not over-tighten on leather boots, as this can restrict circulation and lead to frostbite.
• Step-in (Automatic) Bindings: Featuring a wire bale at the toe and a heel lever.
  • Requirement: Requires rigid boots with specific welts (grooves) at both the toe and heel.
  • Caution: Always use the safety strap around the ankle to prevent the heel lever from popping open due to a stray strike against rock or ice.
• Hybrid (Semi-Automatic) Bindings: A plastic toe basket combined with a heel lever.
  • Requirement: Requires boots with a groove only at the heel. They offer a great balance of stability and ease of use.

Microspikes: When to Trust Them and When to Swap

A special category often encountered is microspikes (or chain spikes). These are lightweight setups with small teeth and chains secured to the shoe by an elastic rubber harness. While very convenient, they are not professional mountaineering equipment.

• When to use them: They are ideal for icy trails with low incline, trail running on snow, or walking around the mountain hut. Their low weight makes them the perfect “just-in-case” tool for easy terrain.
• When to leave them in the pack: As soon as the slope steepens (above 20°–25°), microspikes become dangerous. The lack of front points means you cannot kick your toes in to climb, while the elastic harness allows the boot to “roll” inside the rubber, causing lateral instability.

Safety Rule: If your route involves steep sections or exposed slopes, spikes are insufficient. In mountaineering, true safety starts where the rubber ends and the steel crampon begins.

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Very simple crampon with only 6 points

Microspikes

4. Antibott: The Essential Defense Against Snow

Antibott (anti-balling plates) are plastic or rubber inserts on the bottom of the crampon. They prevent wet snow from sticking to the metal. Without them, snow can build up into a “ball” thicker than the points, causing you to slide. Today, antibotts are considered mandatory for safety.

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5. Length Adjustment: A “Home Office” Task

Crampons must be adjusted precisely to become “one” with the sole of the boot.

• In articulated models, adjustment is usually simple via a spring-loaded center bar.
• In rigid models, it often requires tools (Allen keys or wrenches).
• Pro Tip: Always adjust your crampons at home or in the hut. Trying to fumble with screws and frozen metal in a storm is an experience you want to avoid.

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Conclusion

The choice of crampons depends on the type of routes you plan to tackle. For the average mountaineer who simply wants to enjoy nature safely, an articulated crampon with 10 or 12 points and antibotts is the most versatile solution. For those drawn to vertical ice, rigid frame crampons with vertical points are the only way to go. Regardless of your choice, proper fit and practice in putting them on are what will ultimately guarantee your safety on the mountain.

The Complete Guide to Hiking Shoes: Everything You Need to Know!

They say that “a journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.” In mountaineering, however, it’s not just the step that matters, but also what you’re wearing when you take it. If you’ve ever wondered why there are so many types of mountain footwear—or why your regular sneakers just won’t cut it—this guide will answer all your questions, even if your only experience so far is a Sunday stroll in the woods.

On the mountain, a shoe isn’t just part of our outfit; it is the foundation of our safety. Quality is defined by specialization. A shoe that is perfect for running on a dirt trail can prove dangerous if you attempt to climb a snowy peak in it. That’s why an experienced climber doesn’t just own “a pair of shoes,” but rather a small “toolbox” for their feet.

1.Meet the Footwear “Family”

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The “Light & Fast” (Trail Running)

These are the shoes for those who want to feel the ground and move quickly. They look like gym sneakers, but with “aggressive” outsoles that resemble 4×4 Jeep tires.

• Flexible Sole: These shoes bend easily to allow for running and rapid movement, sacrificing ankle stability for the sake of speed and low weight.
• Why Choose Them: They are ultralight and breathable. Ideal for mountain running or fast hiking in the summer when you aren’t carrying a heavy pack.
• Caution: They provide no ankle support, so they require stronger leg muscles and careful foot placement.

The “Multi-Tools” (Hiking & Trekking)

The absolute protagonist of the Greek mountains.

• What they are: Classic boots that wrap around and stabilize the ankle.
• Semi-stiff Sole: The sole is sturdier than a sneaker but allows for some flex at the forefoot so you can walk comfortably for hours.
• Why Choose Them: They offer safety. If you misstep on a rock, the boot will keep your foot in place, preventing sprains. They are the ideal choice for 90% of routes in Greece, from Mount Olympus to Parnitha.

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Hiking vs. Trekking: Are they the same or different?

Although the terms are often used interchangeably, there are differences:

• Hiking: Usually refers to pre-defined trails and routes completed within a single day. Hiking shoes are lightweight, shorter (low or mid-cut), and more flexible.
• Trekking (Long-distance Hiking/Crossing): Refers to multi-day journeys, often in rugged terrain or off-trail, where you carry a heavy backpack (tent, food). Trekking boots are sturdier, taller for ankle protection, and feature a semi-stiff sole to endure the strain.
• Conclusion: Trekking is a “heavy-duty” and more demanding version of Hiking, so the equipment (sole stiffness, durability) scales up accordingly.

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The “Winter Beasts” (Mountaineering Boots)

When the mountains turn white and ice takes over, we need “armored” footwear.

• What they are: Very stiff boots that cannot be bent by hand.
• Rigid Sole: This stiffness is what allows crampons to stay securely in place without popping off.
• Why Choose Them: They allow crampons (metal ice spikes) to “click” on safely. They are usually double boots (a shoe within a shoe) or heavily insulated to keep toes warm even in polar temperatures.

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Classification by Sole Stiffness

According to standard mountaineering categories, footwear is distinguished by the rigidity of the sole:

1. Flexible Sole Designed for smooth trails, offering comfort and natural foot movement.
   • Category: Hiking / Trail Running.
   • Use: Day hikes, low altitude, light backpack.
2. Semi-stiff Sole The sole flexes less, providing better protection from rocks and ankle support for heavier loads.
   • Category: Trekking / Heavy Duty Hiking.
   • Use: Multi-day routes, rugged terrain, crossing scree fields. Often compatible with semi-automatic crampons (if they have the rear welt).
3. Stiff/Rigid Sole The sole does not bend at all. This is essential for safety on snow and ice and for the proper function of crampons.
   • Category: Mountaineering / Alpine.
   • Use: Winter mountaineering, ice climbing, high altitudes.

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2. What to Look For (In Simple Terms)

The Outsole (The Grip)

Look for the yellow Vibram logo. It’s the guarantee that you won’t slide around like you’re on an ice rink when you step on a wet rock.

The Midsole (Your “Shock Absorber”)

Tucked between the outer sole (Vibram) and your foot is the midsole. This material absorbs impact to protect your knees and lower back.

• EVA (Foam): Lightweight and soft, like a cloud. Usually found in trail running and light hiking shoes.
• PU (Polyurethane): A firmer, more durable material that doesn’t compress easily under weight. This is preferred for trekking boots, as it withstands the load of a heavy pack for hours.
• Tip: If you feel every single pebble piercing your sole, your midsole is likely too thin or “tired” from many kilometers of use.

The Membrane (Waterproofing)

You will often see the Gore-Tex label. This means the shoe “breathes” (lets sweat out) while preventing rainwater from getting in.

The “Bumper” (Rubber Rand)

A rubber strip around the perimeter of the shoe that protects it from getting shredded by sharp rocks and scree.

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3. The Secret is in the… Sock!

You could buy the best boot in the world, but if you wear a simple cotton sock, you’ll end up with blisters. Cotton traps moisture, and your foot “soggy-fies.”

• Quick Tip: Choose specific hiking socks (made of Merino wool or technical synthetics). They wick away sweat and feature extra padding at the heel and toes to absorb vibrations.

4.Additional Info & Professional Advice

Boots and Crampons

If you plan on using crampons, you must ensure they are compatible with your boots.

• Strap-on Crampons: These are simple to fit on almost any boot. However, the boot must have a stiff upper so the straps don’t exert too much pressure on your foot, which could restrict circulation and lead to frostbite.
• Automatic/Semi-automatic Crampons: If your crampons use a heel clip or a front toe-bar, the boot must have specific welts (grooves) to secure these attachments. The sole must also be extremely rigid so the boot doesn’t flex and pop out of the crampons.
• Important Advice: Every manufacturer has a slightly different curvature. Whether you already own boots or crampons, bring one with you to the store when buying the other to ensure a perfect fit.

Membrane vs. Non-Membrane

• With Membrane: If well-made, a membrane guarantees long-term waterproofing. Synthetic boots with a membrane are lightweight, affordable, and dry faster if water gets in from the top. All-leather boots with a membrane can even handle mild winter hiking in the snow.
• Without Membrane: To be worth it, these must be made of high-quality, full-grain leather. They require high maintenance (waxing) before and during your trip. Without care, they may start leaking after just two days. Look for boots with as few seams as possible for better water resistance.

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Maintenance

• Cleaning: Remove heavy dirt with a brush. Use water and a cloth for finer grime.
• Drying: Let them dry naturally. Never put boots on a radiator or near a fireplace. High heat destroys adhesives and dries out the leather. Dry them in a shaded, well-ventilated spot.
• Re-waterproofing: Once dry, apply a waterproofing treatment.
  • Wax-based: Usually for full-leather boots. Apply to pre-warmed leather for better penetration.
  • Silicone/Fluorocarbon-based: These act primarily as water repellents.

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Buyer’s Checklist: What to Ask at the Store

• The Downhill Test: Tie them tight and walk down the store’s inclined ramp. Your toes should not hit the front. If they do, you will suffer on the first descent.
• The Finger Test: Before lacing up, slide your foot all the way forward. Your index finger should fit between your heel and the back of the shoe. This provides the “breathing room” your feet need when they swell.
• “Is it right for my weight?”: A soft sole will tire you out if you’re carrying 15kg. The heavier the pack, the stiffer the sole should be.
• Timing: Visit the shop in the afternoon, when your feet are slightly swollen from the day.
• Crampon Compatibility: Ask if the boot accepts strap-on or semi-automatic crampons if you plan on winter mountaineering.
• Stiffness Test: Try to bend the shoe with your hands. If it folds easily, it’s for easy trails. If it’s “stiff as a board,” it’s for rocks and snow.

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Conclusion

The right hiking boot is not an expense; it is an investment in your enjoyment. It allows you to stop looking at the ground in fear and start enjoying the view. And that, ultimately, is the true meaning of the mountain.

Invest in your feet – they are the “engine” that will take you to the top!

Where the clouds have a home… and a personality of their own!

How are clouds formed?

The process begins with the evaporation of water from seas and land. Water vapor rises into the atmosphere, cools down, and condenses around microscopic particles (dust, pollen), forming clouds.

1. Pieria’s “Cloud Factory”

Why is Mount Olympus always “lost in the smoke” while Katerini enjoys pure sunshine? It’s not Zeus puffing on his pipe. It’s the Orographic Phenomenon. Imagine the Aegean’s humidity rushing in, crashing into the 2,917-meter “wall,” and being forced to take up mountain climbing. It cools down, condenses, and—presto!—a cloud is born.

Clouds “adore” Mount Olympus for a very specific physical reason: the Orographic Effect.

While the surrounding areas of Pieria and Larissa are flat, Olympus rises abruptly from sea level to nearly 3,000 meters. This creates the following:

• 1. Forced Elevation (Orographic Lift): When air masses (especially moist ones from the Aegean) move toward the land, they hit the “wall” of Olympus. With no other way out, the air is forced to climb the slopes steeply. As it rises, it cools due to lower pressure, causing water vapor to condense. The result: Clouds form exactly over the mountain, while just a few kilometers away, where the air wasn’t forced to rise, the sky remains clear.
• 2. The “Cold Trap” Phenomenon: Due to its massive volume, Olympus often stays cooler than the plains. This creates a local low-pressure system that “sucks in” moisture from the Thermaic Gulf. This humidity gets trapped in gorges (like Megala Kazania or Enipeas) creating permanent cloud cover or fog, even in good weather.
• 3. Thermal Lift: In the summer, the rocks of Olympus bake in the sun. The hot air above them rises like a hot-air balloon (thermal currents). When it meets the cooler air at 2,500+ meters, it instantly creates those characteristic white “cotton-like” clouds (Cumulus), which often evolve into local storms only over the mountain.
• 4. The Föhn Effect (on the western side): You’ll often notice Olympus is cloudy on the Pieria side (east), but “dry” on the Elassona side (west). This happens because clouds “dump” all their moisture as rain on the eastern slopes, and as the air crosses the peaks, it descends dry and warm.

Extra Tip: If you’re in Litochoro sipping a freddo in the sun, look up. If the mountain is “boiling,” get ready for a free shower in 20 minutes.

2. Meet the Sky’s “Celebrities”

On Mount Olympus, we don’t just have “clouds.” We have VIPs with names and personalities:

• The “Cap Cloud”: A cloud that sits right on the peak like a beret. If Mytikas is wearing his “hat,” he probably has a “headache” and it’s likely to rain. It’s a sign of increased humidity in the upper atmospheric layers.
• The “Banner Cloud”: The most patriotic cloud! It waves from the summit into the void. In reality, the wind moves so fast that it “sucks” water vapor onto the leeward side. It looks like it’s “hanging” from the peak, even if the rest of the sky is crystal clear.
• The “UFOs” (Lenticular Clouds): These look like flying saucers and form when air flows over the mountain, creating waves. Don’t call NASA! They are impressive to look at but also serve as a warning for very strong winds.

3. “Kofto” vs. “Kopsimo”: Don’t mix them up, or we’ll be looking for you!

Two words that sound similar, but if you confuse them, your legs will definitely complain:

• The “Kofto” (The Shortcut): The climb that literally takes your breath away. It is the short (but exhausting) vertical way up to the Plateau of the Muses.
• The “Kopsimo” (The Cutting/Zonaria): The horizontal “balcony” path under the high peaks. As you walk, you have the awe-inspiring abyss of Megala Kazania on your right. This is where the clouds throw a party, and you feel like you’re walking on air.

4. Best Seats for Cloud-Watching

The sharp elevation gain from the Aegean Sea makes cloud observation from the Pieria coast (e.g., Paralia Katerinis or Platamonas) truly spectacular.

• For the Lazy: “Stavros” location. You go by car, have all of Pieria on a silver platter, and watch the clouds climbing the slopes like alpinists.
• For the Pros: Plateau of the Muses. Here, you are literally above the clouds. You see a white “blanket” covering the entire Thermaic Gulf, making you feel like a demigod.
• Skolio Peak (2,909m): Offers perhaps the most “dramatic” view of Megala Kazania, where clouds often swirl inside the glacial cirque, creating unique formations.

Photography Tips: The best time is sunrise or sunset, when the light adds volume and color. The most impressive formations usually appear after a storm or when strong easterly winds are blowing.

5. Survival Guide (So things don’t get… cloudy)

• Beware of the “Cauliflowers”: If you see clouds rising sharply like cauliflowers (Cumulonimbus) at noon, run! They are brewing a thunderstorm with lightning.
• Dress like an onion: The humidity of the clouds on Olympus will soak you to the bone before you can say “what the duck!”. Wear many layers and always carry a waterproof jacket.

So, the next time you find yourself in Pieria, look up. Mount Olympus always has a story to tell through its clouds – as long as you know how to read it! Have you managed to ‘capture’ one of the mountain’s celebrities with your lens? Do you have a shot from above the white blanket of clouds, or perhaps an impressive ‘UFO’ over Mytikas? Share your photos in the comments and let’s fill our feed with the magic of the Mythical Mountain!

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The history of various climbing techniques stretches as far back as man’s earliest activities in the mountains. Although the first ascents were motivated by entirely non-sporting interests, the movement techniques that enabled these expeditions began to develop even then.

The origins of specialized climbing techniques in the modern sense can be traced back in Europe to at least the 16th century, when chamois hunting and mineral collecting began to flourish in the Alps. Most hunters and collectors came from foothill villages and gradually became sought-after mountain guides. During this era, people also ventured into the mountains out of a thirst for knowledge, which contributed to the mapping of the landscape.

The first methodological manual for mountaineers was the treatise by Josias Simler of Zurich, “On the Difficulties of Alpine Travel” (1574). In addition to geological and meteorological observations, it provided advice on dealing with avalanches, avoiding glacier crevasses, and the use of ropes and spiked footwear.

The Age of Mountain Guides

Climbing techniques at the time were simple and utilitarian. Where hands and feet were not enough, ladders, logs, or wooden poles were used. The protagonists were local highlanders, for whom guiding visitors became a source of income. Their clientele consisted of romantic travelers and scientists. The names of most pioneers remain unknown, even though they played a decisive role in the birth of mountaineering.

19th Century: The Birth of the Sport

It was only in the 19th century that purely athletic ambitions entered the mountains. After the conquest of most well-known peaks, only the most difficult spires remained in Europe. This gave rise to the term “alpinism.” The first Alpine Clubs played a significant role in this evolution.

Milestones and Personalities

Technique evolved alongside increasing difficulty:

• 1865: The dramatic first ascent of the Matterhorn by E. Whymper and M. Croz.
• 1878: With C. Dent’s conquest of the north face of the Grand Dru, the era of the “big faces” begins, culminating in 1938 with the north face of the Eiger (Heckmair, Vörg, Kasparek, Harrer).
• 1950: The first conquest of an 8,000-meter peak (Annapurna) by M. Herzog and L. Lachenal.

The Three Great “Improvers”

At the beginning of the 20th century, three figures changed technique and safety:

1. Otto Herzog: He used the carabiner for the first time (inspired by the fire brigade) and developed belaying techniques.
2. Hans Fiechtl: He introduced the use of pitons hammered into the rock. The classic flat piton is still referred to as a “fichtle” today.
3. Hans Dülfer: The preeminent figure of the era. We owe to him techniques still in use today, such as crack climbing, the pendulum, and the classic abseiling (rappel) method that bears his name (Dülfersitz)..

Free vs. Aid Climbing

Originally, ascents were performed as “free climbing.” However, with the advent of new technical means, aid climbing became dominant from the 1930s until the 1970s. In this style, the climber uses equipment (ladders, pitons) not only for protection but also for upward progression. This allowed for the ascent of faces that were previously considered impossible.

In 1961, one of the most important and iconic documentaries in the history of world mountaineering cinema was filmed in Poland:

“Wariant L” (Variation L)

Directed by: Sergiusz Sprudin
Screenplay & Narration: Jan Długosz (legendary climber and author)
Subject: The film records the ascent of an extremely difficult route on the east face of Mnich (The Monk) in the Tatra Mountains (the eponymous “Variation L“).

The Reaction to the Film

The film caused a sensation in the international mountaineering community. For the first time, a camera followed the climbers so closely, capturing the high tension and the “ballet” of movements on the vertical wall with unprecedented realism. It was not just a recording of an ascent, but a poetic and psychological portrayal of the climber’s struggle. It won numerous awards at international festivals (including Trento and Cortina) and remains a benchmark for the aesthetics of climbing cinematography.

The Crisis of Aid Climbing and the Renaissance of Free Style

However, “no tree grows to the sky,” and every method eventually exhausts its potential. The crisis arrived in the 1970s. Aid climbing had been infiltrated by “bolting” methods—the placement of anchors in holes drilled into the rock. It soon became clear that by using an unlimited number of technical means, any face could be defeated; man would always succeed.

But guaranteed success is the “nail in the coffin” of any sport. Gradually, admiration for those completing such ascents began to wane. The new generation of climbers logically sought the lost thread of evolution where it had been interrupted by aid climbing. The new ideal became difficult ascents with a restriction of technical means. This was the return to free climbing.

Reinhold Messner: The Prophet of Alpine Style

One of the first prophets of these new ideas in the mountains was Reinhold Messner. He was the first to understand that while using all available technology made it possible to conquer any wall or mountain, mountaineering was losing its athletic spirit. According to him, athletic mountaineering begins where the climber sets their own rules, overcoming difficulties through their own strength, skill, and will. He rejected everything superfluous and defined the principles of “alpine style,” which he immediately applied to the highest mountains in the world.

The Legacy of Sandstone and the American School

The ideal of free climbing, however, had not vanished entirely from Europe before this. It was uniquely preserved in the sandstone regions of Saxony and Bohemia, where strict ethics had been observed since the early 20th century. Thanks to the emigration of one of Saxony’s top climbers, Fritz Wiessner, to the USA, this ideal began to spread in America, primarily in rock fields outside the big mountains. Thus, an autonomous rock climbing was born, focused exclusively on free style.

The Dominance of Free Climbing

Free climbing fully established its dominance at the turn of the 1970s and 1980s. Reinhold Messner brought it back to the mountains, and the Americans to the crags. Since then, technical means have been used exclusively for protection against falls and are not permitted to aid the climber’s upward progression. This concept of free climbing defines the direction of athletic evolution, as well as the development of equipment, to this day.

The history of mountaineering in Greece is a journey that begins with mythology and necessity, ultimately leading to modern high-performance sports.

The following is a brief review of the major milestones of mountaineering in Greece:

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1. The First Ascents (Prehistory – 19th Century)

In antiquity, mountains were considered sacred (e.g., Olympus, Parnassus). The first recorded ascents were primarily for military or religious reasons. In 1802, the French traveler François Pouqueville climbed the Tzoumerka peaks, marking the beginning of exploratory interest in the Greek mountains.

2. The Conquest of Mytikas (1913)

The most significant milestone occurred on August 2, 1913, when the Swiss travelers Frédéric Boissonnas and Daniel Baud-Bovy, guided by Christos Kakalos from Litochoro, set foot for the first time on the highest peak of Mount Olympus, Mytikas (2,918m).

Christos Kakalos

3. Organization and the First Clubs (1930 – 1950)

In 1930, the Hellenic Mountaineering Association (EOS) was founded, laying the foundations for the construction of mountain huts and the marking of trails. After World War II, mountaineering began to take on a more popular and organized character.

4. The Development of Technical Climbing (1960 – 1980)

During these decades, Greek climbers began opening difficult routes on major rock faces, such as Varassova, Giona, and Mount Olympus. Figures like Spilios Agapitos and later a new generation of climbers introduced modern belaying and safety techniques.

5. Expeditionism and the Himalayas (1985 – Present)

In 1985, the first Greek expedition to the Himalayas (Annapurna) took place. The pinnacle came in 2004, when the Hellenic Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing (EOOA) organized the expedition that led the first Greeks to the summit of Mount Everest.

6. The Modern Era

Today, Greece is a global pole of attraction for rock climbing (particularly Kalymnos and Leonidio), while ski mountaineering and trail running are experiencing a massive surge in popularity.

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Rock Climbing

It is one of the most dominant forms of mountaineering today. The defining criterion for inclusion in this category is the environment in which the activity takes place—namely, the rock. This includes rock faces ranging from dozens to hundreds of meters high, as well as boulders in the forest.

On the rock, climbing can be approached either traditionally (trad) or as a sport (sport climbing). This depends on the conditions and the rules established by the local community in each specific area.

If we were to categorize climbing based on rock types, the distinction would be based on the following dominant formations:

1. Limestone Climbing

This is the ‘standard’ form of climbing in Greece, as 90% of the climbing sectors consist of high-quality limestone.

Locations: Kalymnos, Leonidio, Varasova, Attica.
This is where sport climbing primarily develops.

2. Conglomerate Climbing
It represents the most iconic “special” category in Greece.

Location: Meteora.
Characteristics: A solid mixture of pebbles and sand. It requires a completely different technique (balance on pebbles) and is governed by strict ethical rules (minimal bolts, traditional approach).

3. Granite & Marble Climbing
These are less widespread but distinct categories.

Granite: Found mainly in Tinos (Exomvourgo), where climbing involves cracks and high-friction slabs.
Marble: Primarily located in old quarries (e.g., in Attica, such as Penteli).

The Essential Distinction in Greece
Within the Greek mountaineering community, the main distinction is between:

Traditional Climbing (Trad): On large rock faces (e.g., Varasova, Olympus, Giona) where the climber places their own protection.
Sport Climbing (Sport): In organized crags with permanent bolts.

Bouldering

As the name suggests, it primarily involves climbing large rocks, typically ranging from 2 to 5 meters in height. It is performed without safety ropes; in the event of a fall, the climber jumps to the ground. This discipline closely resembles actual gymnastics. Being close to the ground, the climber is freed from the psychological burden of the fear of falling, allowing them to focus entirely on executing the most demanding movements.

Climbing occurs either toward the top of the boulder or laterally (traversing). In bouldering, there are precisely defined routes, often requiring the use of specific footholds and handholds, while some starts are performed from a sitting or lying position (sit starts). Additionally, bouldering is practiced on artificial walls, where most competitions take place.

Exceptionally, the rock face may be high enough that a fall starts to induce fear. This boundary is not strictly defined, meaning bouldering can suddenly transition into free soloing (solitary climbing without protection).

Ice Climbing

The stage for a mountaineering feat is not limited to rock; it can also be ice. This element entered mountaineering due to high-altitude peaks that reach the zone of perpetual snow and ice. There, climbers were forced—initially on glaciers and later on the faces of high summits—to become familiar with moving on ice using specialized techniques, aided by ice axes and crampons. Some found this fascinating and refined these techniques, beginning to seek out ice fields even outside major mountain ranges, particularly during the winter. Today, the primary action in this discipline takes place away from high mountains, mainly on frozen waterfalls in mountain valleys during the winter months.

The Evolution of Ice Climbing: Mixed Climbing and Drytooling

Further disciplines evolved from ice climbing, such as modern mixed climbing and drytooling. This evolution occurred because an icefall was considered difficult when it had sections with interrupted ice, exposing the bare rock. In the pursuit of maximum performance, climbers began seeking routes with less and less ice, eventually needing to place their ice axes and crampons directly onto the rock. This discipline is known as modern mixed climbing. When ice is entirely absent from the route, the discipline turns into drytooling.

Ice climbing and later drytooling also entered the world of competitive climbing. For these competitions, artificial structures with ice elements are constructed. Athletes compete in lead (difficulty), speed, and even ice bouldering.”

Mountaineering and High-Altitude Mountaineering

This is another form of mountaineering defined by the environment in which it takes place: the mountains. It is the original setting where the sport of mountaineering was born. However, the term ‘mountain’ is very broad; therefore, a distinction into categories is used: mountains, mid-altitude mountains, and high-altitude mountains

Mountains: Refers to non-alpine environments, where relative elevation gains usually do not reach 1,500 m and the absolute altitude does not exceed 2,000–2,500 m (e.g., Pieria Mountains (Greece), Scottish Highlands).

Mid-altitude mountains: Characterized by typical alpine relief shaped by glaciers, with large elevation gains exceeding 1,500 m and altitudes between 2,500 and 5,000 m (e.g., Alps, Mount Olympus, Pyrenees).

High-altitude mountains: Usually defined as those exceeding 5,000 m (e.g., Caucasus, Pamir, Himalayas in Eurasia, or the Andes and Rocky Mountains in the Americas).

For the type of mountaineering practiced in any given range, the presence of perpetual snow and ice is just as decisive as altitude. For mountaineering purposes, a further distinction is made between glaciated and non-glaciated mountains.

In lower, non-glaciated mountains, activity usually focuses on rock climbing. Ascents consist of several rope lengths (multi-pitch), a mountain climate prevails, and approaches to the base of the routes are longer.

In non-glaciated mid-altitude mountains, difficulties increase, distances are even greater, orientation problems intensify, and the climate is significantly harsher.

In glaciated mid-altitude mountains, a radical change in the environment’s character occurs. The upper sections of valleys are covered by glaciers, and the mountain slopes are clad in perpetual snow. The use of specialized equipment for movement on ice and snow is essential. Above approximately 3,000 meters, the challenge of altitude and the need for acclimatization are added.

In non-glaciated mountains and mid-altitude ranges, one may find sectors developed for sport multi-pitch climbing. However, these are few; traditional mountaineering overwhelmingly dominates these peaks. In glaciated mid-altitude mountains, the inaccessible nature of the environment itself usually dictates a traditional approach.

In high-altitude mountains (above 5,000m), the environment is typically so extreme that people often resort to organizational or technological solutions. The result of the organizational approach is so-called Expedition-style climbing, the essence of which is shifting the challenge from a small group to a large team of people whose labor is meticulously organized. The ultimate goal—the summit—is reached by a select team representing the entire expedition’s effort. Technological aid in high mountains, beyond specialized gear, is primarily expressed through the use of supplemental oxygen, which mitigates the negative effects of high altitude.

Nevertheless, even in high-altitude mountains and their extreme conditions, mountaineering is practiced according to traditional concepts. The expression of this effort is the so-called ‘alpine style’, where methods from middle altitudes are transferred to high-altitude peaks. Especially in the Himalayas, at altitudes exceeding 8,000 meters, this is considered one of the most demanding mountaineering activities.

Bigwall Climbing (Ascent of massive rock faces)

A distinct category of multi-pitch climbing is what is known as bigwall climbing. This involves ascending very high rock faces that are exceptionally steep with minimal features (blank relief). On these walls, specialized tactics and equipment are typically employed, distinguishing this type of ascent from all other disciplines and making it a standalone sport. Bigwall tactics can be applied to standard mountains as well as mid-altitude or high-altitude ranges.

Bigwall climbing originated in the USA, in the Yosemite region. In Europe, the most famous bigwall faces are located in Norway (Trollryggen, Kjerag) or Italy (Qualido).

In Greece, bigwall climbing (multi-pitch routes on massive faces) centers on iconic crags of impressive height and historical significance:

Top Bigwall Destinations in Greece

Giona (Sykia Face): The largest rock face in the Balkans, with vertical sections ranging from 1,000 to 2,500 meters (total relief).

Meteora: Offers unique routes on conglomerate towers, such as the Pillar of Dreams (9 pitches) and Egg Dance (5 pitches). There are over 100 rock formations available for climbing.

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Meteora (Thessaly)

Varasova: One of the most famous rock faces in Aetolia-Acarnania, renowned for its long routes situated right by the sea.

Leonidio: Although sport climbing predominates, it features fully bolted multi-pitch routes reaching up to 250 meters in height.

Winter Mountaineering

The name itself might give the impression that winter mountaineering is simply any mountaineering activity occurring during the winter season. However, this would not be accurate. First, these activities must obviously take place outdoors to allow the effects of the cold to manifest. Another essential prerequisite is that the terrain, due to winter conditions, must completely change its character compared to the summer. In some countries, this distinction is not emphasized; however, in regions such as the Tatra Mountains in Slovakia, Mount Olympus, the Pieria Mountains, or the Scottish Highlands, this criterion is considered vital.

In the European climate zone, these seasonal transformations occur primarily in non-glaciated mid-altitude mountains. In winter, these mountains are blanketed in snow, ice forms on the rock faces, and the range’s appearance is utterly transformed. The mountaineering practiced there fully earns the title of ‘winter mountaineering’ and constitutes a distinct form of action.

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Interesting Fact: “Alpine style” is considered the “purest” form of mountaineering, as the climber carries all their supplies on their back, without fixed ropes or external support.

Mountaineering Trekking (or Scrambling/Mountain Hiking)

This is the most authentic form of mountaineering. The ascent routes in mountaineering trekking often coincide with the paths taken by early mountain explorers and mountaineering pioneers. Beyond the motivation of reaching a summit or another objective, mountaineering trekking also encompasses the desire for wandering through and getting to know the mountain range. The ascents performed typically do not include sections exceeding Grade III on the UIAA scale.

(The UIAA scale—International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation—is the international grading system for the technical difficulty of a rock climbing route).

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Summary: Mountaineering trekking serves as the bridge between simple hiking and technical climbing, as it requires navigation skills and occasional use of hands, but without the need for specialized climbing equipment on a continuous basis.

Secured Route (Via Ferrata)

The most dynamic expression of mountaineering at an amateur level. A Via Ferrata (Italian for ‘iron path’) is a climbing route made accessible and secured with fixed aids, such as iron steps, ladders, chains, or steel cables running along the rock face. Initially, this method was used sparingly to secure popular mountain paths that followed the natural lines of the terrain; these routes were later integrated into the context of mountaineering trekking.

Subsequently, however, this activity expanded into steep rock faces. Defined routes now traverse vertical and overhanging walls, where artificial aids installed using industrial construction methods serve primarily to overcome gravity. Following strict logic, this is essentially a form of ‘recreational aid climbing’.

Artificial Climbing Walls

In the natural environment, a prerequisite for any mountaineering excursion is suitable weather, which is not always guaranteed. The primary motivation for constructing artificial walls was the attempt to bypass weather conditions. The second motivation was the need for climbers to have a training environment where they could practice outside the summer season. The first artificial climbing walls, which mimic the rock environment, began to emerge in larger numbers with the development of the ‘gymnastic’ approach to mountaineering.

The use of artificial walls is primarily for training purposes, serving climbers across all categories and disciplines. High-performance sport climbing on artificial walls is most vividly expressed through climbing competitions. Competitive climbing on artificial structures is a purely contest-based activity within the framework of mountaineering, featuring all the typical characteristics of organized sports, such as rules, judges, and podiums. Competitions are held in lead (difficulty), speed, and bouldering, as well as in ice climbing on artificial structures or drytooling.

Ski Mountaineering (Skialpinismus)

The term ‘ski mountaineering‘ is a collective name encompassing all mountaineering activities conducted in the mountains using skis. In its original form, it primarily involved the combination of a mountaineering ascent with a ski descent, or mountain traverses on skis. Ski mountaineering in this sense is considered one of the traditional forms of mountaineering..

Its simplest form is called mountain ski touring, while the original term ‘skialpinismus’ is now used more frequently to describe the most demanding form of the sport. Ski mountaineering competitions are also organized and have gained significant popularity recently.

Combined Disciplines

Closing this overview of mountaineering forms and disciplines, we should also mention combined disciplines, where mountaineering elements are integrated into other sports or activities. Mountaineering combined with speleology is known as caving-mountaineering (or speleo-climbing), while the combination of mountaineering and paragliding is called para-alpinism (paraglidealpinismus). Among the new combined disciplines, we can also include the now-popular canyoning (canyon descent).

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In its most original sense, the term ‘mountaineering’ describes the activity of ascending to the summit of a mountain. However, in contemporary language, the word encompasses a whole set of further activities and specialized sporting disciplines. These disciplines take very diverse forms, and some have distanced themselves significantly from the original content of mountaineering.

Mountaineering disciplines, therefore, can be grouped based on a simple definition: Mountaineering is movement in mountaineering terrain.

Mountaineering terrain is typically understood to be both within the mountains (natural ground with steep slopes and rocks) and outside of the mountains (steep rocky and icy ground, or artificial terrain that simulates the natural). When moving within mountaineering terrain, Earth’s gravity must be overcome using human strength.

In its most basic distinction, mountaineering is usually divided, depending on the climber’s motivation, into sporting and non-sporting.

The field of non-sporting motives includes purely utilitarian motives (e.g., using trails for a specific purpose), emotional or aesthetic ones (e.g., a love for nature), as well as necessity (such as tourists getting lost in mountaineering terrain). Purely utilitarian motives guided activities in antiquity, when ‘mountaineering’ was practiced by people moving from place to place to find food, wealth, or as fugitives, etc. In the modern era, this includes mountain rescuers, special armed forces units, etc.

A climber with sporting motives is only one who climbs for athletic reasons and is interested in the evaluation of their performance according to sporting criteria: namely, according to the degree of difficulty and the degree of style/purity (e.g., in climbing, the fewer aids used, the higher the performance).

The Traditional Approach to Mountaineering

This is the original and fundamental approach. Traditional (often called ‘classic’) mountaineering influences the form of many disciplines. The defining criterion here is ethics. The core principle is the requirement that the natural terrain remains in the same condition after the ascent as it was before it.

This principle strongly embodies the concept of ‘fair play’ towards nature. Humans must achieve the ascent through their own abilities (strength, motor skills, endurance) and not ‘conquer’ nature through technological means. The ascent should be a pure encounter between human effort and the inaccessibility of nature.

However, human life and health are prioritized above this ideal. Thus, in exceptional cases, minimal modification of the environment (e.g., the addition of a permanent protection point) is permitted to prevent fatal accidents.

A characteristic of traditional mountaineering is the limited use of permanently placed (fixed) anchors on the rock. Instead, mobile protection (slings, nuts, etc.) is preferred. This requires not only physical but also mental strength, as the psychological burden is significant. The climber must be able to face their fear, possessing not only courage but also humility and prudence.

In traditional forms, the requirement to complete the route all the way to the summit remains. Stopping five meters below the peak is considered a failed ascent (as if it never happened).

Important areas for traditional mountaineering in Europe include Wales, the sandstone rocks of Saxony and the Czech Republic, as well as the Alps and the High Tatras.

Greece possesses some of the most iconic rock faces for traditional (trad) climbing and alpine mountaineering in Europe, with routes that require the use of natural protection.

1. Mount Olympus
Olympus is the pinnacle of alpine climbing in Greece.

• Stefani (Throne of Zeus): The most famous rock face, featuring classic, high-stature routes (e.g., “Komi”, “Pagida”).
• Mytikas: Offers demanding lines in one of the country’s most imposing environments.

2. Varasova (Aetolia-Acarnania)
Considered the “school” of Greek climbing.

• Characteristics: A massive limestone massif rising vertically from the sea.
• Routes: Offers a plethora of classic multi-pitch routes where placing nuts and friends is essential.

3. Meteora
A globally unique climbing field on conglomerate rock.

• Style: Climbing here has a strong traditional character, with sparse protection and an emphasis on psychology.
• Experience: The towers of Meteora offer routes ending on summits with breathtaking views of the monasteries.

4. Giona and Vardousia
The mountains of Central Greece host some of the largest rock faces.

• Giona (Plaka Sykias): The largest rock face in the Balkans (approx. 1,100m vertical gain), ideal for serious alpine action.
• Vardousia: Renowned for their winter climbs.

5. Tzoumerka and Tymfi (Pindus)
They offer an authentic mountaineering experience in a wild landscape.

• Tymfi (Gamila): The rock faces above Limnochori and Papigo are a field for experienced climbers.
• Tzoumerka: Imposing walls with routes that require good knowledge of natural protection.

6. Leonidio and Kythira/Anafi

Although Leonidio is primarily known for sport climbing, there are sectors and routes with a traditional character on its great walls. Islands like Anafi (Kalamos) also feature one of the highest monolithic rock faces in the Mediterranean.

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The Sporting Approach to Mountaineering

All disciplines pursued with athletic motives constitute sporting mountaineering. (However, an athlete can be both a Himalayan climber ascending Everest and a person climbing a rock in the forest).

The sporting approach to mountaineering is applied to a multitude of mountaineering disciplines. Its core principle is the effort to master the climbing movement required to ascend a specific section. Naturally, beyond movement, the usual motives of mountaineering coexist, such as the desire to reach a point in the terrain, complete a route, or discover a specific path. However, a dominant element here is the joy and satisfaction of a perfectly executed movement, through which a difficult passage of the route was overcome. This aspect brings to the fore a quality present in other disciplines as well: competitiveness and the drive for a continuous increase in the degree of difficulty of movements. From this trend, competitive climbing was born, which quickly found its ideal environment on artificial climbing walls.

Nevertheless, a large part of climbing takes place in nature, i.e., in the natural environment. In the field, permanent (fixed) protection is placed in high density. In this way, the psychological burden is significantly reduced, the fear of dangerous consequences of a fall is eliminated, and the climber can concentrate intensively on increasingly demanding movements.

Increasing movement difficulty is the primary field for performance climbers. For them, meticulous tracking of route difficulty is typical, expressed by a specific grade on a rating scale. The higher the difficulty value, the greater the success, as it demonstrates the ability to execute a more demanding movement.

Although sporting mountaineering is most commonly applied to rocks in low-altitude areas, we also find it in the mountains—in lower mountains, as well as in medium-altitude massifs. There, long rock ascents are performed on multi-pitch routes, where the requirement for difficult movement is joined by the need for great endurance.

Important sport climbing areas in Europe are primarily Southern France, with world-renowned fields such as Buoux and Verdon, and Germany with the Frankenjura region. Numerous other noteworthy fields exist in practically every major European country.

Greece is considered one of the top destinations worldwide for sport climbing, offering fields with exceptional rock quality and modern safety standards.

The most significant areas include:

1. Kalymnos (Dodecanese)
The absolute global “paradise” of sport climbing.

• Characteristics: Over 4,200 bolted limestone routes.
• Profile: Routes for all levels, from slabs to intense overhangs with stalactites (tufas).
• Popular Sectors: Massouri, Grande Grotta, and the neighboring islet of Telendos.

2. Leonidio (Arcadia)
The fastest-growing destination in mainland Greece, often called “the new Kalymnos”.

• Characteristics: Over 3,000 routes on red and grey limestone.
• Season: Ideal for winter climbing (October–April) due to the mild climate.
• Profile: Great variety from easy routes (5a) to extremely difficult ones (9a+).

3. Manikia (Euboea)
A new, international-level destination that has captured the global climbing community’s attention.

• Characteristics: A rich variety of sectors with high-quality rock in an impressive natural landscape.
• Profile: Offers many modern sport routes with an emphasis on safety and technique.

4. Attica
Athens boasts over 45 fields with more than 1,600 routes, making it one of the few capitals with such immediate access to the rock.

• Key Fields: Parnitha (Petra Varibobi), Penteli, Hymettus, and seaside sectors like Kakia Thalassa and Vari.

5. Other Significant Areas

• Kyparissi (Laconia): A secluded and beautiful destination with high-quality routes above the sea.
• Nafplio: Popular for seaside climbing (e.g., Neraki sector) with easy access.
• Meteora & Pyli (Trikala): Although Meteora is mainly trad, surrounding areas like Pyli and Mouzaki feature excellent sport climbing fields.

For indoor training, major cities like Athens, Patras, Kavala, and Katerini have organized climbing gyms for bouldering and lead climbing.

Multi-pitch routes equipped for sport climbing in the mountains are mainly found in the foothills of the Alps, in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy.

Although the boundaries between disciplines are not always clear, their interconnection provides the sport with great diversity and a multifaceted character.

Levels

In addition to the approach (style), the way mountaineering is practiced is largely influenced by the level at which it is performed. Usually, three levels are distinguished: recreational, performance, and elite (competitive).

The recreational level concerns leisure activities, meaning simple athletic recreation.

The performance level already presupposes targeted and systematic training.

The elite level (top level) requires extreme athletic performance, whether in high mountains, rock climbing, or international competitions on artificial walls.

The vast majority of mountaineers practice mountaineering at a recreational level. In the traditional approach, recreational mountaineering is an athletic activity with elements of romanticism and a desire to return to untouched nature. In the sporting approach, the recreational level primarily concerns movement-based fun and exercise on well-secured rocks or artificial walls.

Traditional approach: A romantic adventure in untouched nature.

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If we want to achieve a high level of safety during a mountain hike, careful preparation is required. Any preparation necessarily requires having a plan.

The basis of every plan must be a strategic decision. We must choose a goal. It can be a mountain peak, a mountain hut-shelter, or the crossing of a specific route, such as crossing a mountain valley-plateau-saddle, crossing a ridge-arête, etc. We must not forget that we must also return to base, or rather home. Only by being aware of the goal can we think about how (from where) to reach it, how (with what strategy) to proceed on the path and what we will need during the journey. That is, we define the means and tactics with which we will achieve the defined strategic goal. This planning method has been known to humanity since antiquity and still helps people achieve increasingly distant goals.

Three-level strategy

First, we must decide exactly where we are going in the mountains. It is necessary to familiarize ourselves with the selected area, to know the geographical section and to learn what may await us there. Familiarity with the specific goal and area is a practically endless process. During the activity, as we approach the area and then walk within it, we constantly observe how the environment looks to us, what our impressions are in relation to safety, what the situation is there. This monitoring process does not stop during the event, and continues even more.

For a better understanding of this process, we can compare it to cinematographic shots, where the camera, with shots from different points and distance, gradually approaches the scene. The first level of viewing we will call “Extreme Long Shot/ at home“, the second level of viewing “Wide Shot/ at the starting point” and the third level of viewing “Close-up/ during the action”.

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Level 1 – «Extreme Long Shot»

At this planning level, we begin to familiarize ourselves with the target area while we are still at home. We search for all possible information, such as maps, relevant literature, articles by mountaineers in the press, information online, interviews with people who know the area, etc. This will give us a first idea of what to expect. Initially, we will understand which climatic zone the mountain range we have chosen is located in and what kind of weather will prevail there. In exotic areas, it is important to know in advance which diseases may occur and which combination of vaccinations is deemed necessary. We can also tell if the mountain range is glaciated or not, rocky, steep or “bare” hilly. If it is rocky, what difficulties may arise here? A lot can be inferred from the knowledge of the geological structure and the development of the mountain ranges. Although mountain ranges share several similar characteristics, what distinguishes them from each other, apart from their geographical location (and therefore the climate that prevailed in the past and present), is their composition and development.

All this information contributes to our decision on where to go and what to choose as our goal. The goal must be chosen according to our capabilities in order to be able to achieve it. We must also have the hiking and/or mountaineering equipment and gear necessary to achieve our goal. At this point, we must already be thinking about the tactics we will use during the action, because the chosen tactic (or strategy with which we will proceed) requires the condition that we have adequate equipment.

Some information must be found as up-to-date as possible before departure. We can check the weather forecast in the area in advance for the time of our visit. In winter, even at this viewing level, the currently declared avalanche risk level can be determined in civilized areas. An overview of other potential hazards can be obtained by studying the natural conditions of the area. The geographical location is important in relation to the climatic conditions, the geology will warn us of the possibility of water scarcity in the area, a lot can be inferred from information about the prevailing vegetation, but also the fauna that dominates the area as many species may be a direct threat. Other species again, maybe threatened…

Already at this first level of planning, it is extremely important to take care of creating backups.

Level 2 – “Wide Shot/ at the starting point”

This level appears most often in the morning in a mountain hut or in a camp when we look out of a tent, but also at the station after getting off the train, the cable car or in the parking lot where we arrived by car, etc. It is that moment when we are already “here” and wonder if we really should go where we planned.

First of all, we see what the weather is like in our target area, how much fresh snow has fallen in winter, etc.

It is an undeniable advantage to check the latest weather forecast now. Information is usually available at mountain resorts and local rescuers are usually willing to provide updated information.

At this point, it is time to reconsider the entire plan and evaluate how “feasible” it might be in the face of “objective” reality. This is, of course, completely necessary, especially if there is no time to implement a “reserve” program (plan B) or reduce the original plan.

Level 3 – «Close-up/ during the action»

Now this is no longer planning in the true sense of the word. During the hike, the most likely thing is to check if everything is going according to plan. We check if we are following the correct route, we observe the changes in the weather and in case of snow the quality of its layers in relation to the avalanche danger.

Regarding planning, the most we can do is modify our plan, either by changing tactics, diverting to an alternative goal, or in case of very unfavorable conditions, retreating completely back to the starting point.

The 3×3 method summarizes the following:

ΑΤ ΗΟΜΕ

Weather report online. Additional information (from the hut, rescue team, etc.)

Study of route maps, terrain relief, total ascent, slope, etc. Bibliography/articles. Alternative routes and escape routes.

Who are the team members and who is the leader? Choice of ascent tactics and pace (depending on the team’s capabilities). Selection of appropriate equipment.

AT THE STARTING POINT

Visibility, wind, rainfall, temperature? Change in weather compared to yesterday? Has new snow fallen? Where is the windward side and which is the leeward side? Avalanche danger level?

Terrain relief? Snowdrifts/old snow? Fallen rocks? Flooded streams? Slope of adjacent sides to the path? What are the options for bypassing a dangerous part of the path?

Who is actually here? Their condition before the start? Who is the leader? Will the pre-selected ascent tactics work? Will extra equipment be needed? Is there enough time to adhere to the original schedule? Checking the batteries of electrical devices.

DURING THE ΗΙΚΕ

Are there weather change trends? Visibility? Change in wind direction? New snow? how much? is a layer of snow forming? Is the sun shining? Is the snow melting?

Do I know where I am? Am I lost? Can something fall on me? Where will I end up if I fall? Does the terrain relief/terrein require protection? Orientation of adjacent slopes? What is the steepest part?

Change of program and retreat route

When “everything goes wrong”, we should accept that perhaps the intended plan cannot be implemented. We can make this discovery at various stages of the journey, either during planning or directly during the hike. At that moment, it is extremely important to have a well-thought-out alternative program or even a retreat route if the hike is already underway.

It is an indisputable fact that people gravitate towards planned activities when making decisions. This is probably due to the subconscious fear of an uncertain future that has accompanied humanity since time immemorial. A plan is like a beam of light that «illuminates» the future and we know where we are going. It is psychologically very difficult (especially in a group of people) to abandon a plan and enter an uncertain situation. It is an interesting paradox that people prefer to take risks by doing «what was planned» rather than going to a safe environment when they don’t know exactly what they will do and what will happen there.

When planning our trip, it is necessary to keep alternative program options in mind and inform all participants in the event in advance. Depending on the interests of the team members, it is a good idea to choose a different goal or another activity that will entertain all participants. When the possibility arises that the plan may need to be changed for safety reasons, the event participants will not be caught by surprise. When people know what will happen in advance, they are more likely to participate without objection. At the same time, it is always good to have ready variations of the originally planned activity (in our case, alpine/mountain tourism). The so-called “maximalist” and “minimalist” variations. Maximalism presupposes, for example, a complete crossing of the ridge of the selected mountain range (in another way), while in minimalism, if the current conditions prove to be extremely unfavorable, we can climb (choosing a safe route) to a less important peak of the mountain range and return to base. It is not necessary to abandon the original idea, as if conditions improve, the ridge ascent can still be carried out, but it is likely that the route will need to be shortened somehow. However, it cannot be disputed that the action may have progressed so far that it is no longer possible to divert the plan in a different direction. Then, in adverse conditions, there is no other choice but to stop the effort and return. Something that is easy to say, but sometimes harder to do. In a mountain environment, it is not always possible to simply return the same way we arrived at a place. For example, after overcoming a difficult spot on the terrain, it is not always the most practical to return through it when retreating. There may be easier exits. These are the so-called escape routes. We must have thought about these escape routes during planning and have them in reserve for use. When planning, we do not only think about the one and only “our own” path, but in reality we must think about many.

Experience and physical condition of team members

An essential part of any plan and intended tactics is to consider who will implement the plan. Everything stands and falls with the human factor. A plan should not be an «empty shell» that typically meets all requirements for perfection, but lacks the ability to be implemented in practice. The capabilities of the members are a limiting factor for creating any plan. A good plan must be «tailored» to people’s measures.

Just as a chain is only as strong as its weakest link, so is a group of people. The plan must be designed so that the weakest member of the team can carry it out. It is naive to believe that the more experienced members of the team will miraculously help the weaker ones and speed up their pace.

The weakness of a team member can be physical fitness; the person in question simply lacks strength and physical condition. However, the person may also lack skills. Even simple walking on a slope requires a certain amount of practice and skill, let alone walking with crampons. It must be made clear here – moving in the mountains off the beaten path requires skills that can only be acquired with practice!

More experienced and capable members can help the weaker members in simpler situations, but it is important to note that this will complicate and slow down the process, and this must be taken into account in advance during planning. The more weak members there are in a team, the less effective the team will be. We pay attention to the ratio of strong to weaker members. As the complexity and difficulty of the goal increases, the less participation of weaker or inexperienced members is allowed in the team. If the more capable are to help the less capable in something, it is necessary that the more capable are overrepresented.

When the activity involves more complex procedures, such as the use of special climbing equipment (ice axe, crampons, rope, belay), the team must consist only of people who know how to use these tools. There is no room for experimentation or trial and error here. It’s serious! The leadership of inexperienced people in terrain that requires climbing equipment is recommended only for professional climbing instructors or mountain guides.

Time estimation

The basic axis of every plan is the time adherence to the program. We need to know how long we will be on the road, from which we can then deduce when we will start to reach our destination at a specific time. During the hike, we overcome both distance and – in the mountains – altitude difference. These two elements of hiking are related and influence each other.

A person or a small group of people in good physical condition can walk in about 1 hour:

• 350 vertical meters on the ascent
• 700 vertical meters on descent
• Horizontal distance 4.5 km

For a larger group of people, 30% more time is required.

When planning at level 1 (” at home”), we can measure the marked route on the map. First, we calculate the length of the route, and then, using the contour lines, we add up all the altitude differences. We will add the times for all ascents and all descents separately. Then we add both data and get the time required to overcome the total altitude difference.

The approximate time of the route can be calculated using the following formula:

From the times calculated for the distance and the ascent, the smaller value is divided by two and added to the larger value.

Example:

Ascent 1,600 meters …a small group… about 4.5 hours

15 kilometers of route …about 3.5 hours. This value (3.5 hours) is the smaller one, which divided by two is 1.75 hours (i.e., one hour and three quarters).

4,5 + 1,75 ­= 6,25 hours (i.e., 6 hours and a quarter).

For a larger group we add 30% to the time

The hike will last about 8 hours.

We can have the best overview of our hiking route by creating a so-called graph of the altitude profile of the route. The Y axis is height, the X axis is distance. We will plot the basic points of our route on the graph, such as peaks, saddles, shelters and other important places. We will record the time required to overcome each section defined by these points.

Then, it is necessary to add a specific amount of time to these time estimates, as we must take into account that we may be delayed somewhere, there may be some complications or we simply will not be as fast as we intended (for example, because we are carrying heavy backpacks). The extra time reserve will give us time to overcome these problems.

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Weather forecast

The weather has a fundamental impact on the feasibility of the hike we are pursuing. If bad weather conditions arise, very little or almost nothing can be done. For this reason, we pay great attention to the weather forecast when planning a hike. The most up-to-date weather forecast is of utmost importance. It is a good idea to check the forecast again in the morning before our hike. Other sources of current forecast are a phone call, either directly to the meteorological service or to the mountain rescue service. It is good to pay attention to issues such as storm conditions, the promotion of a cold front, the sharp drop in temperature, etc.

Just before the hike (level 2 – ” at the starting point”), we make the most basic observations, noting the cloud cover, the direction and intensity of the wind. A drop in atmospheric pressure during the night usually portends a deterioration of the weather…